Clean and White

'A comprehensive . . . and provocative exploration of environmental racism from the founding of the republic until the 1960s' (American Historical Review)Clean and White offers a history of environmental racism in the United States focusing on constructions of race and hygiene. In the wake of the civil war, as the nation encountered emancipation, mass immigration, and the growth of an urbanized society, Americans began to conflate the ideas of race and waste. Certain immigrant groups took on waste management labor, fostering connections between the socially marginalized and refuse. Ethnic 'purity' was tied to pure cleanliness, and hygiene became a central aspect of white identity. In Clean and White, Carl A. Zimring draws on historical evidence from statesmen, scholars, sanitarians, novelists, activists, advertisements, and the United States Census of Population to reveal changing constructions of environmental racism. The material consequences of these attitudes endured and expanded through the twentieth century, shaping waste management systems and environmental inequalities that endure into the twenty-first century. Today, the bigoted idea that non-whites are 'dirty' remains deeply ingrained in the national psyche, continuing to shape social and environmental inequalities.